Tag Archives: Mythology

Happy Birthday, Joseph Campbell

Posted on by under Books, Grad School, Life, Mythology, Psychology, Teaching

joseph_campbellbs

There is no other writer/thinker/scholar/mythologist who has had as big of an impact on me as Joseph Campbell. His notion of following bliss was introduced to me during a turning point in my life when I was an undergrad. Following my bliss led me to into two master’s programs that transformed me. The first master’s program led me into my career; the second led me into my very being. Beginning with the works of Campbell, I have discovered exciting realms of mythology, scholarship, psychology, psyche, and bliss. For more than a decade, his words have inspired me to make leaps of faith and follow unpaved paths.

Happy 109th bday, Joe!

Life After Grad School

Posted on by under Books, Grad School, Life

DSCN7346I’ve spent 70% of my adult life in college. And now……… I’m done! This is kind of a strange transitional period for me though. I barely know life without school! (Though as a teacher, I guess I won’t be too far removed from it ;) ). I’ve just finished my final graduate school paper, and in May I’ll be walking for my second MA. It’s exciting, but it’s also a big life change. This particular two-year-program I was enrolled in at Pacifica took me about four years to get through with the various ups and downs of life. And though I’ve written my last five research papers over the last couple quarters, I haven’t had any regular time on campus since the end of summer… and I’m really missing that community! The experience of Pacifica is something that’s almost difficult to put into words. The courses, the materials, the instructors, and the students really are a rare breed here. Delving into mythology and psychology and exploring so many rich areas inevitably affects the psyche and the very being a person. It’s about so much more than academia. Working with this material and going through this passage of my life has molded every aspect of my being. Makes it hard to say goodbye to the program and the people (though a big YAY for social networking keeping this commuter community connected)…. of course I’ll always be able to return for other campus events and seminars… but it will be different.

So, I’ve come to realize it’s a bittersweet celebration.

I am very excited about saying goodbye to homework though! Of course, I enjoyed the coursework and loved just about everything I read, but it did consume a lot of time that I am looking forward to having back. I’m particularly excited about reading anything I feel like! Though I realize with all the grading I always have to do, I’ll never really have all the time I like to fantasize about having with all my books, which I’ve recently re-organized. The picture to the right shows all the books from I bought during my graduate program. Once I was done making working piles out of them in my office, I got to organizing them. Amazing to see it all together.

And the pic below shows all the books I’ve bought/received in just the last 14 months. Each one was selected with the thought, “I’ll read this next!” And the pile, of course, just kept growing. Still haven’t decided what I’m actually going to read first!

DSCN7345

In addition to reading, there’s other things in life I’m eager to dig into. There are many things I’ve been interested in learning or doing over the years, and I always tell myself, “I’ll do that when I’m done with school!” This includes learning sign-language, learning to sew, and learning how to really cook more than spaghetti and quesadillas. I also want to catch up on TV shows that started when I was in grad school that I never got a chance to check out. Fringe & Castle are on the top of that list. Other projects I want to take on include taking agility classes with my pup and tagging the last decade of digital photos.

More importantly, though, what I’m really excited about is spending more time at home with my hubby, working on our various house projects, and spending more time with all of our extended family. Since I commuted to school and was out of town once a month, there were some events I wasn’t here for. And there were many others I just couldn’t make, or really enjoy, because I was so swamped with homework and research. And, of course, the biggest step and most important thing we’re now focused on is starting a family of our own.

For now, I’m going to enjoy the liminal space I’m in and embrace whatever life has to offer next. Thanks for reading. Namaste.

© myth_girl

© myth_girl

Inception & the Underworld

Posted on by under Grad School, Pop Culture

Here’s a piece I realized I never posted! I wrote this paper for the Myths of the Underworld course I took last year. It was the last of the incompletes I finished in the fall. As I post this, I am currently working on my very last grad paper! More content to appear on my website soon. Thanks for sticking around!

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The underworld is a timeless element present in mythology and human thought. As seen in ancient mythologies beginning with the Descent of Inanna in 2000 B.C.E., “descent stories [reveal] the human quest for the kind of knowledge that adds to spiritual power”  (Davis et. al 26). After undergoing a quest in the underworld, the hero returns to the daily world empowered. These underworld stories have recurred throughout the ages, continuing into modern day. James Hillman identifies that “myths are not simply part of the past . . . Myth lives vividly in our symptoms and fantasies and in our conceptual systems” (Dream 23). Therefore, it is no surprise that films, one of our most popular devices for modern storytelling and mythmaking, have presented the important myth of the underworld time and time again. In 2010, director Christopher Nolan released the film Inception, which adeptly depicts the underworld through dreams. As Nolan indicates, “[W]hen you’re talking about dreaming . . . you are talking about this universal human experience” (10). The dreamscape provides an excellent landscape for the underworld (which is also a universal experience), for “[i]t’s no secret that dreams belong to the underworld” (Hillman, Dream 2). The film was a box office success because of Nolan’s ability to bring viewers into the timeless and relatable realm of dreams, which connects us all to the deeper, mythological experience with the underworld.

Inception, which is, on the surface, a multi-layered story about a heist, touches on the elements of the underworld that we are familiar with from ancient mythology. The main character Cobb (played by Leonardo DiCaprio) has recently lost his wife and is coping with this tragedy, which is compounded by the fact that the authorities think he killed her. His overarching goal in the film is to return home to be with his children. In this film, a device called the Portable Automated Somnacin IntraVenous Device allows individuals to share dreams. Cobb works with individuals that are hired to go into someone’s dream to steal a thought. This is called extraction. The high-stakes job the film centers around calls for something different, something that only Cobb has performed before – inception. Instead of extracting a thought from an individual, a thought is planted in the individual’s mind. Working with dreams, which automatically call to mind the unconscious and represent a descent, director Christopher Nolan is able to develop a new story of the underworld, which involves a look at the depths of mind and the process of grief and loss, another component tied to the underworld: “Loss does characterize underworld experiences, from mourning to the dream” (Hillman, Dream 54).

The film opens in a dream that Cobb and his entered with a team for an extraction. During Cobb’s opening dialogue about dreams, he states, “Once an idea’s taken hold in the brain, it’s almost impossible to eradicate” (Inception). As he explains this, a character off-camera picks up a wine glass. The glass crosses the screen, briefly disrupting the image of Cobb. Only the glass itself, not the wine within it, can be seen. This is the first of many uses of the image of glass in the film. In Re-Visioning Psychology, James Hillman emphasizes the importance of this image:

Glass in dreams . . . presents the paradox of solid transparency; its very purpose is to permit seeing through. Glass is the metaphor par excellence for psychic reality: it is itself not visible, appearing only to be its contents, and the contents of the psyche, by being placed within or behind glass, have been moved from palpable reality to metaphorical reality, out of life and into image. 142.

Nolan uses this visual metaphor often in the dream world as a reminder that the reality viewers are seeing is in the purely psychic realm, not one of day-to-day living. Later in this same dream sequence, when the dream begins to disintegrate, shattering glass explodes across the screen.

In order to enter this shared-dream realm to perform extraction or inception, an architect is needed to design the dream world. Cobb’s team needs a new architect for the inception job, and he hires an architect student named Ariadne (played by Ellen Page). Her name immediately calls to mind the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. As in the myth, Ariadne’s role will be to guide the hero, Cobb, out of a labyrinth – in this case, the labyrinth is in his own mind. When everyone enters the shared dream state, other elements may unconsciously arise. Because Cobb is undergoing a psychological struggle, the image of his wife appears in his dreams. Unlike his real life wife, Mal, this shadow of her is often destructive. Ariadne is the only one on Cobb’s team that knows how deeply his suffering is affecting him. Therefore, like Athena for Odysseus on his way home, Ariadne also becomes Cobb’s “guide and protector” (Smith, Sacred 26).

Figure 1 Cobb's drawing in Inception

Figure 1 Cobb’s drawing in Inception

When Cobb hires Ariadne, he has to show her how to navigate the dream realm.  The first time they dream-share, she is unaware they are dreaming. They have a discussion on dreams, and as Cobb identifies that the mind “creates and perceives a world simultaneously” (Inception), he draws a simple sketch (figure 1) that calls to mind the path the hero takes on his journey (figure 2), as identified by Joseph Campbell (30). Cobb’s simple circular arrows around a straight line indicate a descent and a return, as does Campbell’s formula. This visual accentuates that although the film encapsulates many characters and a great heist adventure, the heart of the story is about Cobb’s heroic descent and return. Cobb then leads Ariadne to recognize that they are having this conversation in a dream. She begins to lose her calm and the dream erupts around them, again including the image of shattering glass to represent the break of the psychic realm back to the daily realm. After they awaken, Ariadne agrees to explore more of the shared-dream with Cobb.

Figure 2 Campbell's monomyth (30)

Figure 2 Campbell’s monomyth (30)

While walking through the landscape that Ariadne is designing in the dream, she asks Cobb who all the other people are that are also walking around. He explains that they are “projections of [his] unconscious” (Inception). Although Ariadne is the dreamer, Cobb is the subject, so his “subconscious populates [the] world.” As Ariadne explores new architectural possibilities in the dream realm, she begins to play with gravity and the natural order of the world. She soon notices that Cobb’s projections are staring at her. Cobb explains that his “subconscious feels that someone else is creating the world” (Inception), and it arouses suspicion. He also explains to Ariadne that because it is his “subconscious [he cannot] control it” (Inception).

This pivotal scene with Cobb and Ariadne, which sets up the parameters of dream-sharing for the viewers, introduces key elements from depth-psychology. The dream persons that Cobb identifies as projections were discussed by Hillman in Dream and the Underworld: “The persons I engage with in dreams are neither representations . . . of their living selves nor parts of myself. They are shadow images that fill archetypal roles” (61). These shadows are representative of the unconscious, as Cobb has identified. However, as the scene continues, a specific shadow appears in the form of Cobb’s wife. Appearing as more than a mere memory, she fulfills the archetypal role of the anima. According to Hillman, the archetype “comes in the shape of this or that personal memory” (61), so it is fitting that Cobb’s anima appears as his wife. Furthermore, Jung identified the “anima as the personification of the unconscious” (Hillman, Re-Visioning 43). When Mal appears before Cobb in his dreams, she is all at once memory, anima, and unconscious, powerful elements to contend with in the underworld of the dream realm.

When Cobb first sees Mal in this dream, Ariadne is continuing to play with the architecture around them. She turns two very large mirrors, which reflect her and Cobb (a symbol of their shared journey), together across a bridge. With the touch of her hand, she shatters both mirrors across the bridge, again demonstrating that ability to see through. This time, the glass vanishes and the dream continues. What is present in the dream is more than what meets the eye. There is a reason Cobb continues to be haunted by his memories, his anima, and his wife. Ariadne later identifies, “[Y]ou’re going to have to forgive yourself, and you’re going to have to confront her [Mal]. But you don’t have to do it alone” (Inception). Her mythological role as his protector and guide is solidified when she makes this statement.

After this central dream, Cobb’s team begins to work on their heist job (to perform inception on a specific individual), and Ariadne prepares the architecture for the dream. Shortly before it is time for the team to leave for their heist, Ariadne finds Cobb, alone, connected to the Portable Automated Somnacin IntraVenous Device. Because of using this device so frequently, it is now the only way that Cobb can dream. Ariadne takes it upon herself to enter Cobb’s dream to see what he is doing in these dreams. She ultimately finds an elevator in Cobb’s dream and, much to his displeasure, descends to the basement level. This image of descent reinforces the notion of the underworld and dream. In the basement, metaphorically the deepest part of the unconscious, Ariadne sees Cobb’s memory of the night that his wife Mal killed herself. Mal was convinced that they were in a dream and that when she died, she would wake up.

After awakening from the shared-dream with Cobb, Ariadne insists on going with the team for the heist job since she is the only one who knows what he is dealing with in his subconscious. (Though she has designed the architecture for the dream world where the inception is to take place, it was not part of the plan for her to go with the team on the job). When the team, including Ariadne and Cobb, enters the shared-dream with the individual they are to perform inception on, a heavier sedation than usual is utilized. This will permit them more time in the dream realm and the ability to descend deeper by creating dreams within dreams (all necessary to successfully perform inception). The situation becomes problematic when one of the dreamers on the team is mortally wounded in the dream. Though dying typically wakes one up from the shared-dream, under this form of sedation the dreamer cannot awaken. Therefore, the mind will be lost in limbo, which is defined as “unconstructed dream space [filled with] raw, infinite subconscious” (Inception). Cobb explains to Ariadne that he and Mal were once trapped in limbo when they were exploring dreams within dreams. Though it was only hours in the real world, Cobb and Mal spent years in limbo together, losing track of what was real. As Cobb explains what this did to Mal, Ariadne understands that she “was just lost in the labyrinth” (italics mine, Nolan). This line, present in the shooting script but not in the final film, again emphasizes Ariadne’s mythological role.

The team descends deeper in the dream realm, continuing their job. Cobb’s projection of Mal appears in one of the deeper levels, shooting and killing another dreamer before Cobb can summon up the courage to stop her. With two individuals of the dream now trapped in limbo, Cobb decides to descend into limbo to bring them back. Because Cobb has been in limbo before, whatever he left behind remains there. Ariadne accompanies him to help him face Mal. When they descend into the realm of limbo, they are washed ashore by the ocean waves. As Hillman indicates, the “general geography” of the underworld gleaned from myth indicates that to descend to the underworld, waters must be crossed (Dream 17). Though the whole film embraces underworld and dream imagery, at this point we have descended into deepest realm of the unconscious, the darkest part of the underworld. Water also indicatesthat “the dreamer is in danger of being over-whelmed by the unconscious in an emotional psychosis, flooded with fantasies – no ground, no standpoint” (Hillman, Dream 153). This is the moment Cobb has truly entered the labyrinth that Ariadne must guide him through.

Cobb finds his projection of Mal – this image of both his anima and his guilt – in limbo. With Ariadne by his side, Cobb explains to Mal (and the audience) that he needed to convince her that her world was not real in order for them to escape when they were in limbo. However, as Hillman ascertains, “[T]he underworld perspective radically alters our experience of life” (Dream 46). Cobb never imagined that the idea would continue to grow, convincing Mal that the waking world they returned to was not real either. After telling his projection of Mal why he is responsible for her suicide, she asks him to stay with her this time. Like Nausicaa offering marriage to Odysseus, this “represents the familiar temptation of the hero to remain in the magic circle of the archetypal realm, rather than to make his way back into the normal suffering of human life” (Smith, Sacred 26). When Cobb refuses Mal’s plea, she stabs him. Ariadne shoots her, and as Mal’s projection dies in Cobb’s arms, he is able to tell her, “I miss you more than I can bear, but we had our time together. And now I have to let go.” He makes his peace, and Ariadne has guided him out of his inner labyrinth.

Ultimately, Cobb, Ariadne, and the wounded dreamers find their way out of limbo, and all of the dreamers awaken from the dream. In the midst of Cobb’s inner battle, the team successfully completed their job of inception. The heist is over, and as a reward from the man who hired them, Cobb’s name has been cleared with the authorities. No longer a suspect in his wife’s death, he is free to go home to his children.

In the film, all of the individuals who enter the realm of dream-share own a totem, an item that Hillman has identified as “keepers of our lives” (Re-Visioning 47). The totem is something individuals have created for themselves to be able to identify if they are dreaming or not. Throughout the film, Cobb uses Mal’s totem, a spinning top.

If he is in a dream, the top never stops spinning. When he is awake, it topples over. This helps Cobb differentiate between waking life and the dream realm. When Cobb arrives home, he spins the top on a table to make sure he is not dreaming about this long-awaited reunion with his children. Before he can see if the top has stopped spinning, his children turn to see him from the backyard. He walks through a doorway – a significant image that “marks the incarnation of the divine [back] into the mortal realm” (Smith, Sacred 32) – and embraces his children. The camera shifts over to the spinning top, but the screen cuts to black before viewers can see if it stops spinning. As the film ends, viewers are left with this question: Was Cobb dreaming?

After exploring the film as an underworld story, it is clear that Cobb was not dreaming in the final scene. Mythologically, he must return to his children after undergoing transformation in the underworld. As Evans Lansing Smith identifies, “The mythic journey . . . reminds us that there is a passage through death, and a return journey to be made” (Sacred 16). Just as Inanna returns after her descent to the underworld and Odysseus finds his way home, so too must Cobb. The Nekyia, which Jacobi defines as containing “life, death and rebirth” (italics mine, 179), includes both the descent and ascent. This is clearly represented in Cobb’s figure about dreams, which echoes Campbell’s figure of the hero’s journey (Figures 1 & 2). The trip to the underworld always includes descent to and from the underworld, which permits the “creation of new self out of decomposition of old self” (italics mine; Smith, Class). If Cobb fails to return from the underworld, the journey is incomplete.

 

Works Cited

Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1972.

Davis, Paul et. al. eds. The Bedford Anthology of World Literature: The Ancient World, Beginnings-100C.E. Boston: Bedford / St. Martin’s, 2004.

Hillman, James. The Dream and the Underworld. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. Print.

—. Re-visioning Psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1975.

Inception. Dir. Christopher Nolan. Perf. Leonardo Dicaprio and Ellen Page. 2010. DVD.

Jacobi, Jolande. Complex/archetype/symbol in the Psychology of C.G. Jung. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1959.

Nolan, Christopher. Inception: The Shooting Script. San Rafael, CA: Insight, 2010.

Smith, Evans Lansing. Class lecture. MS619: Myth and the Underworld. Pacifica Graduate Institute, Carpinteria, CA. 25 July 2012.

—. Sacred Mysteries: Myths About Couples in Quest. Nevada City: Blue Dolphin, 2003.

 

 

Works Consulted

Bulfinch, Thomas. Mythology. New York: Laurel, 1959. Print.

Depth Psychology and Culture

Posted on by under Buffyverse, Grad School, Mythology, Pop Culture, Psychology, Whedonverse, Writing

In celebration and honor of passing the comprehensive exams in my Master’s program in Mythological Studies and Depth Psychology, I’m sharing each essay I wrote. Here’s the final one. Here I was required to look at a piece of popular culture or media from a mythological and depth psychological perspective. Of course, I turned to Whedon, and then to my dear blue friend, Illyria. The handful of episodes she is in are amazingly dynamic and loaded. For more on Illyria –and here comes my shameless plug– check out Joss Whedon: The Complete Companion for my piece, “Touch Me and Die, Vermin!”: The Psychoanalysis of Illyria.

Myth and Psychology in Angel

Television shows offer a great avenue for telling mythological stories with detailed characters and events unfolding over a period of time. Series such as Angel provide viewers with a mythology that is as rich as those developed in ancient texts. A spin-off of the popular series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Angel captured viewers’ attention for five seasons as it explored the individual journeys of each main character in its ensemble cast. Throughout my course work at Pacifica, I have explored the mythological elements of this series. I examined thecharacter Angel as the modern Oedipus (Greek and Roman I), explored the series Angel as a Tragedy (Greek and Roman II), and examined the role and significance of the Apocalypse in Angel in relation to DH Lawrence’s Apocalypse (Approaches to the Study of Myth). Through this research, I have found the most provocative mythological and psychological storyline in Angel occurs in season five with the characters Wesley and Illyria.

One of the main characters in Angel is Wesley Wyndham Price. He is a human that works with the vampire Angel in this series about a group of misfits that fight against the dark supernatural forces in Los Angeles. Wesley falls in love with the human Winifred “Fred” Burkle, but Fred’s body is overtaken by the godking Illyria (an old one who once ruled in the world at the beginning of time). As Wesley mourns the loss of his love, he has to deal with the unpredictable godking who has replaced her. Illyria has one simple goal: to regain her full powers (beyond what her human vessel can contain) and reclaim her rule over the world. She believes she is better than humans. Her character is representative of the god complex, and as her ego faces defeat, Illyria comes to know emotional pain.

Joseph Campbell asserts that pain is a part of our humanity: “The impact of this horror on a sensitive consciousness is terrific – this monster which is life. Life is a horrendous presence, and you wouldn’t be here if it weren’t for that” (Pathways 3). This idea is illustrated throughout the Angel series quite often as all the characters face dangerous trials and tribulations. It is accentuated in the character of Illyria as she undergoes a great transformation and explores human emotions. Furthermore, the storyline with Wesley and Illyria includes the four functions of mythology, which Joseph Campbell asserts must be present in a traditional mythology, and which address living with the “horrendous presence” of life. Historically, a mythology itself would provide these four functions (discussed in detail below) for the members of a given a society. In the popular culture form, the mythology of Angel depicts the four functions within the story itself, allowing audience members to see the characters grapple with matters they can relate to. Though humans do not literally face the supernatural forces characterized in Angel, the truth of these battles exists in our daily lives as we struggle to live in this world.

According to Campbell, the first function of a mythology is cosmological and requires the individual to look at the mystery of the world and make some type of reconciliation with it (Pathways 104). Illyria and Wesley must make reconciliation with the world as it is, especially after they have both suffered great losses: she is no longer a ruler, and he no longer has the love of his life. This process of reconciliation may be even more difficult for Illyria because her previous status exempted her from human emotions. Though Wesley never suffered such a tragic loss as the death of Fred, he is at least familiar with the pain and misery of living in a world filled with disappointment, loss, and death.

In Illyria’s first appearance in the episode “Shells,” she is quick to express her views of the human experience as she examines Wesley mourning the loss of Fred: “This is grief. I’m watching human grief. It’s like offal in my mouth.” In a following comment, she declares, “Your breed is fragile.” In this early observation, Illyria quickly distinguishes herself from humans. However, by the end of the episode, Illyria learns her temple and army are destroyed, and she painfully expresses, “My world is gone.” She suffers disappointment, something she never felt as a godking. At this time of her defeat, she is really being born into this human world, and the first connection between her and Wesley occurs when he replies, “Now you know how I feel.”

Struggling through this cosmological stage, Illyria analyzes the world around her and concludes, “I’ve nowhere to go. My kingdom is long dead. There’s so much I don’t understand. I’ve become overwhelmed. I’m unsure of my place. But I exist here. I must learn to walk in this world.” Anyone who has suffered a significant loss can understand Illyria’s feelings. It is at this point that she formally asks a hesitant Wesley to be her guide. He agrees, and they both try to re-establish their place in the world. At this point, Wesley’s role also exhibits the fourth function of myth, which will be discussed below.

After acknowledging the harsh truths of reality, Illyria moves toward “[t]he second function [of mythology which] serves to present a universe within which the mystery as understood will be present, so that everywhere you look at it, as it were, a holy picture, [opens] up in back to the great mystery” (Campbell, Pathways 105). After looking at the mystery of creation, the individual begins to look at the meaning or significance of the self in this world. Illyria despises her human form, and as she examines the world around her, she feels trapped. Wesley takes her to a rooftop to offer some breathing room, though she still complains: “Your world is so small. And yet you box yourselves in rooms even smaller. You shut yourselves inside, in rooms, in routines” (“Underneath”). As Wesley tries to discuss the difficulties of existence that lie beyond the walls, Illyria begins to demonstrate the humanity she too “reeks” of, finally concluding, “We are so weak (italics mine).” Her ego is beginning to recognize that she is no longer a godking.

As Illyria continues her earthbound struggle, “The third, sociological function of mythology [which] gives you laws for living within your own society” appears (Campbell Pathways 107). This function encourages the development of a moral code. As her guide, Wesley has been trying to explain the differences between right and wrong to Illyria. When Illyria first chooses to participate in the climactic apocalyptic battle the protagonists face, her motives are not altruistic. Illyria herself explains, “I’ve been broken and humiliated. I will return in kind every blow, every sting. I will shred my adversaries. Pull their eyes out just enough to turn them towards their mewing, mutilated faces” (“Not Fade Away”). She is still controlled by her desire to assert her power. However, when Wesley dies in battle, Illyria begins to get in touch with her humanity. She mourns for him and expresses, “I’m feeling grief for him. I can’t seem to control it.” Illyria’s response to his death demonstrates she has developed the ability to emotionally connect. She is just starting to move beyond her own desires and function within the society she has found herself in.

Illyria provides an unadulterated view of human struggles, and Wesley shows how to deal with the passage of life from birth to death, fulfilling the fourth and final psychological function of mythology. According to Campbell, “All societies are evil, sorrowful, inequitable; and so they will always be. So if you want to help this world, what you will have to teach is how to live in it. And that no one can do who has not himself learned how to live in it in the joyful sorrow and sorrowful joy of the knowledge of life as it is” (Myths to Live By 104). Once exposed to the human condition, we are all subject to the same vulnerabilities. This shared experience makes us all equal; no one is “above” the pleasures or the pain of it all. Wesley’s key role here is to teach Illyria learn to live in this world, while he manages his own suffering. It is important to note that it is not through any supernatural powers but through their choices that the characters in Angel, particularly Wesley, are defined as heroes. The greatest choice is the one to continue to face the despair in the world and to continue to fight for the world in spite of the pain. Throughout the series, and as seen in this storyline, Angel not only functions as mythology, but depicts ways to accept the pain of life. Campbell emphasizes that, “All life stinks, and you must embrace that with compassion” (Pathways 77).

Illyria makes negative comments about humanity that viewers can relate to, and one could ask why anyone would want to be human and experience all the suffering. However, it is through the pain that human life becomes magnificent. In a unique depiction of the four functions of mythology, Illyria reveals the terrifying truths of living in this world. By embracing life as the brutal force it is, being a part of it, and willing to sacrifice it honorably, Wesley depicts humanity is at its best.

Wesley, who had stated that he did not intend to die in this battle, gave his life for Angel’s worthy cause in “Not Fade Away,” the series’ finale that emphasizes the underlying theme to the series, to fight the good fight (both physically and mentally). His nobility portrays the importance of their stand against dark forces. Finally, Wesley’s sacrifice stands out because he still sought to live and fight alongside Angel despite all the recent pain he suffered. The strength of his character throughout all five seasons of Angel demonstrates a true hero and an inspiring image of humanity. Though he did not survive the final battle, one can hope that his guidance will live on through Illyria and through the viewers.

Works Cited

Campbell, Joseph. Myths to Live By. New York: Penguin, 1972.

— Pathways to Bliss. Novato: New World, 2004.

“Not Fade Away.” Writ. Joss Whedon and Jeffrey Bell. Angel. WB. 19 May 2004.

“Shells.” Writ. Stephen S. DeKnight. Angel. WB. 3 March 2004.

“Underneath.” Writ. Sarah Fain and Elizabeth Craft. Angel. WB. 14 Apr. 2004.

Myth and Literature

Posted on by under Books, Grad School, Mythology, Writing

In celebration and honor of passing the comprehensive exams in my Master’s program in Mythological Studies and Depth Psychology, I’m sharing each essay I wrote. Here’s my second piece. This was a very open topic. I had to discuss a piece of literature from a mythological perspective. I decided to tackle something I’ve had a personal struggle with: Frodo’s final action in The Lord of the Rings. I already know many disagree with my analysis here, as small chats with close friends have revealed. I’m not looking to argue my point. This is just the way I see Frodo. I wrote this with the following comment from one of my profs in my mind: “You are such a competent, clean writer that I sometimes wished for something a little riskier or edgy.”

The Role of the Monomyth in The Lord of the Rings

 The Lord of the Rings is hailed as one of the greatest pieces of literature from the twentieth century. It also functions as a beautiful mythology. It contains a supernatural realm, heroes, personal and collective journeys, and battles between good and evil. Though the characters range from hobbits to elves, they are akin to humans and share our experiences with life and death and all the emotions in between. Like any great myth, The Lord of the Rings transcends time and depicts the human condition. One of the central features of any myth is the hero. There are many heroes in The Lord of the Rings as nine members volunteer in The Fellowship of the Ring to take the ring to Mordor to be destroyed. Along the way, they meet many other admirable and fine characters who aid them in their quest. The quest to destroy the ring and save Middle Earth is the main storyline of the trilogy. The ring bearer, Frodo Baggins, is arguably one of the predominant main characters in this epic story. He is the one who carries the weight of the ring, and the safety of Middle Earth rests on his small, humble shoulders. A close examination of Frodo’s movement through Joseph Campbell’s monomyth reveals that although Middle Earth is saved, Frodo himself is a failed hero.

Joseph Campbell’s monomyth, famously defined throughout his text The Hero with a Thousand Faces, provides the structure that he found to exist in mythologies across time and cultures. The monomyth tracks the pattern of the hero on a quest. Campbell indicates that the patterns may shift in order and be presented in various ways, but accentuates that all mythological heroes must move through a separation, initiation, and return. Frodo certainly embarks on a quest that separates him from his known world, is initiated through his road of trials, and returns home. However, Campbell also emphasizes the inner journey that must occur on this heroic quest, and it is from that perspective that Frodo fails.

Frodo’s call to adventure begins when the wizard Gandalf asks him to get the ring out of The Shire, the simple hillside where he and the other hobbits live. Frodo’s initial aid is his friend Samwise Gamgee. They are soon accompanied by Frodo’s cousins Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took. Frodo’s crossing of the first threshold occurs when they nearly encounter Ringwraiths in The Shire and flee into the Old Forest. The small hobbits are leaving their known world and really beginning their adventure. They continue to travel to new places, as when they enter Bree, but they always receive assistance when needed. In the Old Forest they meet the helpful spirit Tom Bombadil, and in Bree they meet the ranger Aragorn, who remains by Frodo’s side through the first book of the trilogy. Frodo’s separation is clear and follows the elements mapped out by Campbell.

As the hero continues the quest, he will be immersed in the belly of the whale and go through a road of trials. The belly of the whale provides that final separation from the world the hero came from. In the Shire, Frodo had nothing to fear and knew nothing of pain. But on the hill of Weathertop, Frodo is mortally stabbed by a Ringwraith. The injury consumes Frodo as he falls into a world of shadows. Frodo is taken to Rivendell and saved by the elves, but this encounter has truly marked his initiation. The Fellowship of the Ring is then formed in Rivendell, and he gains a total of eight companions. Together, the fellowship undergoes many hardships. Frodo, specifically, nearly faces death again in the Mines of Moria and loses his companion, Gandalf, to a demonic Balrog. Frodo and the remainder of the Fellowship find refuge, again from elves, in Lothlorien. It is here where Frodo has his meeting with the goddess, as Campbell phrased it. The goddess is represented by the great elf Galadriel. She fills Frodo with hope and also offers him and each of his companions a supernatural aid. Though Campbell indicates supernatural aid is received in the separation phase of the journey, this departure from the monomyth demonstrates that the different elements can appear in varying order. Through the separation-initiation-return path, the hero can be tossed about between aids and trials various times.

A key element seen in the hero’s trials is temptation. This often takes shape with the woman as temptress, but is ultimately anything that tempts the hero to wander from his quest. The ring itself provides Frodo with the greatest temptation imaginable. Forged by Sauron, the ring seeks to do the bidding of the dark lord. If Frodo puts the ring on, he can be seen by Sauron and the Ringwraiths. Caving into this temptation threatens his very life and the future of Middle Earth. However, the desire to wear the ring grows heavier and heavier as Frodo continues to be the bearer of the ring.

Through the trials the Fellowship faces, Frodo flees from his companions and seeks to go to Mordor alone, though he is accompanied still by his dearest friend, Samwise. Throughout the novel, readers become aware of Gollum, another creature drawn to the power of the ring, who wore it for years, hidden away in a cave. When Frodo and Sam catch Gollum following them, they capture the pathetic creature. Out of the mercy Frodo learned from his uncle, Bilbo, Frodo never harms Gollum. Driven by the power of the ring, Gollum later tries to have Frodo killed by the giant spider Shelob. Though his attempt fails, he escapes the hobbits and eventually Frodo and Sam enter Mordor with the ring alone.

In Campbell’s monomyth, after undergoing the various trials of initiation, the hero experiences apotheosis. This can consist of a literal or figurative death, but the hero ultimately unites opposites and achieves his quest. This should be followed by receiving a boon to disseminate to the world and ultimately end with the hero returning to the home he left at the beginning of the myth. Often this return includes the hero refusing to return and being rescued from without. This is an important component to the monomyth and to the personal development, typically a form of individuation, which the hero is to achieve.

After surviving many life-threatening experiences, Frodo and Sam enter the Cracks of Doom, their ultimate destination. Now, Frodo must simply toss the ring into the fires to defeat Sauron and protect all of Middle Earth from the return of his evil reign. At this climatic moment, however, the power of the ring finally possesses Frodo, and he places the ring on his finger. He has claimed the power of the ring for himself and abandoned his quest. The weight on him has been very heavy, and it is unfortunate that he surrenders when he is so close to such a great achievement. However, Tolkien then provides what he coined a eucatastrophe: when all seems lost, there is a sudden turn of events. Gollum, spared by Frodo’s mercy, shows up unexpectedly, attacks Frodo, and claims the ring. In his unbound enthusiasm, however, Gollum falls into the pits of the fire with the ring, thus destroying himself, the ring, and Sauron. Frodo completed his quest in getting the ring to Mount Doom, and he carried a heavy weight on his shoulders throughout the book; however, ultimately the weight of the ring was too much for him to bear. Middle Earth was saved by chance, which was made possible by Frodo’s mercy (an action that speaks greatly to Tolkien’s Catholic background). Nevertheless, Frodo failed to achieve apotheosis, wherein the hero recognizes the divine within himself.

Frodo and Sam do continue on the hero’s journey when they receive rescue from without and, after more trials, are able to return to their home in The Shire, which is unfortunately not in the condition they left it in. With the aid of the other hobbits, Frodo and Sam are able to reclaim The Shire and restore peace and happiness for its inhabitants. Throughout Middle Earth, there is much joy. Other main characters survive the battles, including Gandalf, who returns from the pits of Moria where he had been consumed. The couple Arwen and Aragorn and the couple Eowyn and Faramir are granted a standard happily ever after. Middle Earth has been saved, for everyone except for Frodo. He does not get to become the master of the two worlds, as Campbell indicates. His physical and psychological scars are too deep. Frodo has been returned, but he remains broken. After trying to maintain life in The Shire, Frodo decides he cannot remain there. He lives in great pain, and his time with the ring has extended the length of his life. Accompanied by Bilbo, Frodo sails to Valinor, the Undying Lands. Valinor is the land of the elves, and they have granted Frodo and Bilbo, both ring bearers, safe passage for the weight the ring had on them both. The elves mercy, like Frodo’s mercy for Gollum, grant him a place to find peace and finally find recovery.

The Lord of the Rings offers an undeniable mythology with a variety of characters whom can each be explored in their own right. Frodo is often heralded as the hero of the story, so it is important to examine how he fits the role. Campbell has demonstrated the importance of the hero and outlined the hero’s typical journey. This journey has occurred in mythology time and time again throughout all cultures. It is a significant journey, and one that will have variations. The variations Frodo experiences in the return, however, indicate that the mercy he granted Gollum led to the final defeat of Sauron, but that his personal failures prevented him from gaining the personal boon of the hero.

Works Consulted

Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton, NJ: Princeton, UP. 1972.

Tolkien, J.R.R. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967.

Mythology & Religious Tradition

Posted on by under Grad School, Mythology, Writing

In celebration and honor of passing the comprehensive exams in my Master’s program in Mythological Studies and Depth Psychology, I’m going to share each essay I wrote. First up is a little piece where I was required to define mythology while integrating the thoughts of two significant figures and one religious tradition. Ya know, nothin’ big. ;)

Defining Myth:
Joseph Campbell, Ginette Paris & The Buddhist Tradition

Joseph Campbell provides an excellent overview of mythology in The Hero of a Thousand Faces. He explores different facets of the hero’s journey while providing examples from mythologies around the world. His monomyth of the hero has become a building block for current mythological studies. It is clear that the human experience is not bound by culture or by time. Mythologies speak to individuals because they resonate with the soul, touching archetypes we all understand, consciously or unconsciously.

As the study of mythology has moved into the twenty-first century, thinkers such as Ginette Paris have integrated the study of mythology and depth-psychology. In her works, she makes it clear that myths, our human stories, provide “the images that open the heart and make us see what is right there in our psychological reality” (163). We can find this in art and literature, as Paris identifies. Mythology is not restricted to the stories of the past from Rome or Greece. In one important definition (presented in an introductory text on Buddhism), Damien Keown explains that myth “does not mean something that is false,” (7) which is unfortunately a common use of the term today. Instead, “myths are stories which have a compelling force by virtue of their ability to work simultaneously on several levels” (7). They are also “metaphorical” and contain “universal truths” (8).

One place where we can find mythology and identify these truths is in religion. One Eastern tradition in particular, Buddhism, is working its way into the consciousness of the West and allowing us to reimagine our definitions of mythology and religion. For both mythology and religion to function in a society, they must speak these spiritual truths to the people of the community in a relatable manner. In Old Path White Clouds,Buddha directs his students to understand that, “The Dharma must be applicable to present life, and compatible with local culture” (Nhat Hanh 462). Likewise, Joseph Campbell indicates that, “The myth has to deal with the cosmology of the day and it’s no good when it’s based on a cosmology that’s out of date” (Hero’s Journey, 43). So while the elements of the myths are timeless, all myths do not necessarily remain accessible. For example, when some modern readers pick up a copy of Oedipus Rex, the events that play out may not resonate with them. They may not be able to relate to the antiquated palace setting. However, when those same modern readers watch a television series such Angel, which at times explores the same Oedipal issues in a modern setting, they may find the truths in the story more accessible. Though it is certain that not all modern fiction provides the metaphysical, cosmological, sociological, and psychological functions of mythology (as identified by Campbell), there are many films, television series, and works of literature that do provide them. Mythology surrounds us today. The form and matter of mythology changes and grows with the culture, but they will always speak the same truths.

Mythology speaks to the imagination, depicts the human condition, demonstrates a hero on a journey, and provides readers/listeners/viewers with guidance. As Campbell indicates, “we have not even to risk the adventure alone; for the heroes of all time have gone before us… where we had thought to travel outward, we shall come to the center of our own existence; where we had thought to be alone, we shall be with all the world (Thousand Faces 25). This shared experience and oneness with the world that Campbell identifies is strongly present in the Buddhist tradition. Paris emphasizes the same idea of oneness in a footnote when she indicates that “there is no tight boundary between me and others, me and the world” (231). The Buddhist text Old Path White Clouds explores the seminal idea of oneness as Thich Nhat Hanh tells the story of the Buddha’s life on earth. It is irrelevant whether the Buddha walked on this earth or if the details in the book are historically accurate. The story of the Buddha is itself is a myth. It is not about literal truth but spiritual truth. The spirit itself transcends terms like “Buddhism” and “religion” as it points to the universal human condition. All religions, as all mythologies, point to the same truths about our experiences. In The Hero’s Journey, Campbell further defines mythology: “The images of myth are not fact, they are metaphors; and the reference is to transcendence. They take the facts of life and relate them to the psyche” (43).

The influx of Buddhism in the Modern American culture points to elements of unity, oneness, and mindfulness that our hustle and bustle culture has arguably been lacking. Buddhism, as both a religion and a mythology, presents the functions of mythology, offering individuals with texts and concepts that provide ways to cultivate the mind in ways that are new to many Westerners. Many Buddhist texts are accessible to Western readers, and some even integrate our foundational religion: Christianity. In books such as Jesus and Buddha as Brothers and Living Buddha, Living Christ, Thich Nhat Hanh emphasizes a growing idea: inclusivity instead of exclusivity (a notion that also includes religious tolerance). The Dalai Lama also emphasizes in his writings that a belief in the Buddha and his teachings does not negate a belief in Christ and his teachings, and vice versa. Mythologies point to truths of human existence, but they are most effective when they do not exclude other mythologies. Each mythology and religion offers a piece of the truth. Essentially, we are each on our own hero’s journey through life and, as Campbell asserted, the myths can guide us on that journey.

A significant part of our lives’ journey is also the process of individuating, something Ginette Paris and other Jungians point to. The steps to individuation, which Jungians define as “the ultimate goal of human life” (Walker 33), bare many similarities to the Buddhist path of Enlightenment, Nirvana, or “self-realization,” whose goal is to “put an end to suffering and rebirth” (Keown 44). Together, Depth Psychology and Eastern mythology/philosophy/religion (all the words apply) can provide a very powerful compass for navigating this life. In these complementary approaches, individuation and enlightenment hold the same goals as both ultimately seek to end suffering and provide unity. Furthermore, in the most profound way, Buddhism offers guidance for what Campbell identified as “joyfully participation in the sorrows of the world” (173): “The joy and happiness of meditation permeates mind and body, heals all anxiety, sorrow, and despair and enables the practitioner to experience the wonders of life” (Thich Nhat Hanh, Old Path 529). Paris echoes this sentiment a chapter subheading: “Life is absurdly, awesomely ugly and beautiful” (59).

Learning to live in this world, going on one heroic journey after another, and seeking individuation and peace of the mind, body, and spirit are all endless processes in our human existence. Following the work of great thinkers such as Joseph Campbell and Ginette Paris opens doorways to insight and understanding. Religions such as Buddhism offer a mythology that reminds us “what life has to offer – this instant, this body, this love, this destiny” (Paris 197). Mindfulness is becoming a popular term in America today as it points to something we all need: a return to the present. Caught in consumerism and a fast-paced culture, it is easy to lose sight of the moment. We collectively need navigational skills to aid us in making both the day-to-day and large decisions in our life. Reading, studying, and meditating are combined components from mythology, depth psychology and religion that will help us to develop well-rounded lives that allow for moments of quietude, self-reflection, and soul movement. Caring for ourselves in this way is the first necessary step in tending to the soul of the world.

Works Cited

Campbell, Joseph. The Hero’s Journey. Novato: New World, 1990.

— The Hero with a Thousand Faces. New Jersey: Princeton UP, 1972.

Keown, Damien. Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Print.

Nhat Hanh, Old Path, White Clouds: Walking in the Footsteps of the Buddha. Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press, 1991. Print.

Paris, Ginette. Wisdom and Psyche: Depth Psychology After Neuroscience. London: Routledge, 2007. Print.

The Hero’s Journey

Posted on by under Books, Life, Writing

I deeply enjoyed Steven Pressfield’s The War of Art when I read it last year. Following that same thread, he has just released the new book Turning Pro: Tap Your Inner Power and Create Your Life’s Inner Work. Sounds great! Can’t wait to get a chance to read it! (And a big thanks to my super cool uncle for telling me about it!) I recommend Pressfield’s books to all my fellow writers/artists/creators out there! In other words, to EVERYONE! We all have the potential to create.

Excited about the release of the new book, I was perusing Pressfield’s site and discovered he’s recently been blogging about Joseph Campbell’s hero’s journey! It all began in his post The Hero’s Journey, Pt. 1 where he reflects on Campbell and introduces his reader to the hero’s journey. In his second post, The Hero’s Journey in Myth, Pressfield reflects on the components on the hero’s journey and considers how this may be hard wired in each of us. In the third installment, The Hero’s Journey as Screenplay, Pressfield looks at one of my personal favorite mediums for myth. He reflects, “The hero’s journey, in myth or in movies, reflects a primal template of the human heart. It describes how life really works.” In his fourth post, The Hero’s Journey as Boot Camp, Pressfield discusses how his discussion on the hero’s journey in the previous weeks is applicable to our daily lives. He indicates that we can choose and create our own “artificial” journeys by deciding what we want to learn and what we want to become. More mythically, he also identifies the “authentic” hero’s journey: “The real hero’s journey arises from the unconscious imperative of our own hearts, which is by definition unknown to us.”

Throughout these posts, Pressfield identifies some of the key attributes of the hero’s journey as he reflects on how Campbell has impacted his own life. I key in with excitement any time anyone mentions Campbell as he has been such a powerful force in my life and academic journey. I study mythology because of Campbell, and Pressfield can show you some of the reasons why his work is so compelling! I look forward to more of his thoughts in his Writing Wednesdays.

Zombie Research

Posted on by under Grad School, Pop Culture, Writing

The zombies have a hold on me! There is so much research, so many books, so many subtopics about zombies! I think I might actually be lost in it. I keep thinking I’m moments away from beginning my research paper, but each bit I read leads me to another bit (bite?) … and another … and another …  I’ve reached that point where I have to say, “Okay. Enough. You’ve done the research. Now write.” You can never really have ALL the info on a topic, so you just have to settle down once you have enough. (Sage advice from my first graduate advisor). I keep getting sidetracked in this research project, though, because there’s just SO much out there and so many directions to run with (from?) zombies!!  ;)

Of course, the pop-culture element of the zombie fascinates me! That’s my forte. I nearly always direct my research towards pop-culture. So that’s where I am really getting distracted because the paper I’m working on for my African & Diaspora traditions class isn’t going to venture strongly in that area. I’m trying to stick more to the Haitian zombie, its roots, and the reality. This discussion will go into film a bit, but it’s definitely not going to address what we now have stumbling before us: the post-modern zombie. I wish I could dig into that, but it’s so far removed from the original zombie mythos that if I wrote a paper on that, it wouldn’t be as rooted in African traditions as it should be.

I just downloaded two more articles from the school library and then I’m calling it quits. Tomorrow I am writing! I have to remember, this isn’t even my only paper! I really don’t have the luxury to spend the amount of time on all my research papers as I have on this one. I guess I just have to admit it what’s happened to me:

The Week in Books

Posted on by under Books, Grad School

Welcome to my lil’ world, filled with alchemy, Roman mythology, and children’s literature. :)

 
The Castle of Crossed DestiniesThe Castle of Crossed Destinies by Italo Calvino
My rating: 4 of 5 stars

Really fascinating read. Helped me in getting more of a grasp of the alchemical world, though I will admit I’m still floundering a bit. I enjoyed the narrative style and the succession of stories. I was fascinated with the process of everyone telling their story with the same deck of tarot cards and seeing that real interconnection of all our experiences.

MetamorphosesMetamorphoses by Ovid
My rating: 4 of 5 stars

Books 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 were assigned for my Greek and Roman Traditions class. I guess I “cheated” a bit by downloading the audio book, but it was the only way I could squeeze it in with all my other readings. I was actually really pleased with the narrator and thought he really brought these myths to life. It was a fun read! Such rich myths in here. Also a chance for me to start trying to remember the names of Roman gods versus the Greek gods. Good mythic fun! Well, except for the occasional death and dismemberment.

The Paper Bag Princess (Classic Munsch)The Paper Bag Princess by Robert N. Munsch
My rating: 4 of 5 stars

Short, fun picture book about an independent, self-reliant, awesome young princess!!

Balloons over Broadway: The True Story of the Puppeteer of Macy's ParadeBalloons over Broadway: The True Story of the Puppeteer of Macy’s Parade by Melissa Sweet
My rating: 5 of 5 stars

Beautiful new picture book on the history of the Thanksgiving parade! I learned a lot. Great family fun! And wonderful illustrations.

View all my reviews

Haitian Zombification

Posted on by under Grad School, Mythology, Pop Culture

Here’s a lil’ something I wrote for my African Traditions class. I have also included an accompanying PowerPoint at the end of this post. It covers many elements discussed here and also includes a brief look at our current American obsession with zombies. Important note: Wes Craven’s film version of The Serpent and the Rainbow is a gross misrepresentation of Wade Davis’ original work discussed here.

The Vodoun tradition stems from a “complex mystical worldview,” explained by ethnobiologist Wade Davis as “sacred and secular . . . material and spiritual” (Serpent 72). This community-based tradition is “concern[ed] [about] the relationship with man, nature, and the supernatural forces of the universe” (72). One area of particular concern to Haitians is the soul, composed of both the ti bon ange and gros bon ange. While the gros bon ange is the part of the soul that operates to keep an individual alive, the ti bon ange is the individual aspect that is “vulnerable to capture by the sorcerer” (185). The well-being of the soul is so highly regarded that Haitian physicians are also priests because it is believed that the spiritual state of the individual determines the physical state (183). Because of their belief in immortal spirits, Haitians do not fear death, but they do fear becoming a zombie, a process that involves possession of the soul.

While the zombie itself is harmless, the idea of becoming a zombie instills terror in Haitians. As explained by Maya Deren, “A zombie is nothing more than a body deprived of its conscious power of cerebration” (43). This type of “soulless living” (70) is the greatest fear in this African tradition. Operating from this fear, family members of the recently deceased will often verify the death by either observing the body for several days or even stabbing the individual to make sure the death is complete (Davis, Serpent 185). This will spare the individual from undergoing the frightening process of zombification. This process involves an apparent death, burial, and revival, which is followed by a severe beating conducted to ensure that the soul does not return to the body (186).

In 1982, Harvard funded Wade Davis’s research in Haiti to discover the scientific process believed to be involved in recorded zombie cases. Throughout his book The Serpent and the Rainbow, Davis chronicles his research and experiences in Haiti, including his exploration of the most famous case of zombification involving Clairvius Narcisse. In 1962, Narcisse was pronounced dead by American doctors. Eighteen years later, he returned to his village, claiming that he had escaped after being turned into a zombie. However, his village, including his own sister, did not welcome him back. This element stirred Davis’ curiosity: why were individuals selected to become zombies in the first place? While Davis continued the research he was sent to Haiti for, this question became another driving force behind his inquiries.

Davis did ascertain a mix of the purported zombie poison from a hougan in Haiti. He took this sample back to Harvard where lab testing concluded that the potent mixture could create a death-like state where the victim could easily be declared dead, even by the finest doctors. The ingredients in the poison were congruent with the symptoms Narcisse had described to physicians and even personally to Davis. Though Haitians maintain the tradition that the bokor conducting the zombification steals the soul of the victim, it is clear that the strongest ingredient from the deadly puffer fish induces the physical zombification outcome. Essentially, the physical and emotional trauma from the poison and the burial process leaves the victim brain-damaged and easily controlled. While spiritual elements may be involved and clearly cannot be proven or disproven from the Western scientific perspective, the poison Davis examined is a key component to the zombification process. (Davis, Serpent).

After identifying the poison at Harvard, Davis returned to Haiti, primarily inspired to continue his cultural exploration. He discovered that zombification is utilized as a just punishment under the rules of a secret society. The Bizango is responsible for finding criminals and punishing them. Though Haitian law contains a penal code that “prohibit[s] the use of any substance that induce[s] a lethargic coma indistinguishable from death,” i.e. zombification (60), the “social sanction imposed” by the Bizango is permitted by authorities (213). However, zombification is not a frequent punishment (Davis, “Letters” 1715), and it is only executed when an individual has committed certain punishable offenses (Davis, Serpent 253). After learning of these offenses, which include lack of familial respect and land issues, Davis realized that Narcisse was not an innocent victim after all, but a man justly persecuted under this secret system. After gaining insight into this aspect of the Haitian system, Davis understood why Narcisse, a criminal, was not welcomed back to his village upon his return.

The research conducted by Davis brought a realistic understanding and appreciation of Haitian traditions to America. Unfortunately, this reality is not typically portrayed in film and other pop-culture media. In 1988, famed horror movie director Wes Craven brought The Serpent and the Zombie to the screen. Aside from the general premise of an American conducting research in Haiti, the film completely diverts from Davis’s research by incorporating sexuality, violence, dark magic, and persistent misinterpretations. The film maintains the negative and inaccurate image of Voodoo presented in the first Hollywood films in the early 1900s such as White Zombie and Walked with a Zombie. It is unfortunate that the mainstream image in America has not evolved beyond these misrepresentations over the course of the last century. Currently, however, the zombie trend seems to have moved entirely away from its Haitian roots as American films, television programs, and games are consumed by images of the living dead consuming living flesh and brains.

Works Cited

Davis, Wade. “Letters.” Science 240.4860 (1988): 1715-716. Print.

— The Serpent and the Rainbow. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985. Print.

Deren, Maya. Divine Horsemen: the Living Gods of Haiti. New Paltz, NY: McPherson, 1983. Print.

Click here to view PowerPoint presentation